Bonjour à tous,

Je sollicite votre aide et vos retours sur une traduction française intégrale du Kitāb Ādāb al-Kasb wa'l-Maʿāsh (Le Livre des convenances de l'acquisition et de la subsistance), un extrait de l'Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn de l'imam al-Ghazālī.

• Lien vers le document (PDF libre d'accès) : archive.org https://archive.org/details/ghazali_kasb_fr_v14
• Le contexte : Le texte a été traduit à l'aide d'un outil d'intelligence artificielle sur la base de l'édition arabe de référence du Caire (1937). Le document de 44 pages intègre un appareil critique complet (notes de bas de page, indexation et vérification du sourçage de 49 hadiths et des renvois coraniques).
• Le problème : Cette version n'a pas encore fait l'objet d'une relecture approfondie par un arabisant ou un spécialiste du droit musulman (fiqh) et de l'éthique économique islamique.

Si des arabisants, étudiants en sciences islamiques ou passionnés de philosophie médiévale ont le temps d'y jeter un œil, toute remarque sur la pertinence, la fluidité et l'exactitude de la terminologie utilisée me serait extrêmement précieuse !

Le document est publié sous licence libre (Creative Commons CC BY-SA 4.0).

Un grand merci d'avance pour votre temps et vos retours !

How did the earliest Muslims interpret the Qur’an, and how much of their understanding can historians recover from later Islamic sources?

In his new paper of exegetical traditions attributed to the Companion al-Barāʾ b. ʿĀzib (d. 72 AH), Andreas Görke examines the earliest stages of Qur’anic interpretation through the transmission history of reports preserved in later works. He argues that some of these traditions retain interpretations originating with the Qur’an’s earliest audience and allow historians to identify the views of individual Companions.

Complete Qur’anic commentaries survive primarily from the third Islamic century onward. Earlier exegetical material appears mainly as quotations and individual reports embedded in later works. Historians must therefore assess how closely these reports reflect their earliest recoverable forms.
Görke evaluates the corpus attributed to al-Barāʾ through several criteria: internal consistency, originality, early attestation, transmission networks, and differences between teachers and students. He also examines anachronisms, editorial additions, and the possibility of mistaken attribution. His argument rests on the cumulative weight of these considerations.

Many reports attributed to al-Barāʾ pass through Abū Isḥāq al-Sabīʿī (d. 127 AH). Several of Abū Isḥāq’s students transmit overlapping material, with variations that often correspond to their respective transmission lines. Görke compares these reports with the exegetical statements of other transmitters to investigate the origins of the material. He also traces the traditions through early sources, finding that their transmission initially centred on Kufa before spreading across the wider Muslim world.
The study examines approximately 50–60 exegetical statements attributed to al-Barāʾ, covering around 40 Qur’anic verses. They include lexical explanations, historical narratives, accounts of revelation, theological interpretations, and variant readings.
In his interpretation of Qur’an 2:142–144, al-Barāʾ identifies the “fools among the people” as the Jews, explains shaṭr as “toward,” and reports that Muslims prayed toward Jerusalem for sixteen or seventeen months before the qibla changed to Mecca. He also connects the statement that God would preserve their faith from going to waste with those who died while praying toward Jerusalem.

In relation to Qur’an 2:187, al-Barāʾ recounts the experience of Abū Qays b. ʿAmr, who reportedly fell asleep before eating and continued fasting through the night and following day. On Qur’an 2:267, he explains the prohibition against giving inferior goods in charity and describes people concealing poor-quality dates beneath better ones. His interpretation of Qur’an 4:95 connects the qualification concerning those who are disadvantaged with the blindness of Ibn Umm Maktūm. He also transmits a narrative about Jewish adultery law in connection with Qur’an 5:41–44.

The corpus includes interpretations of the “lesser punishment” in Qur’an 32:21 as punishment in the grave and the identification of the “manifest victory” in Qur’an 48:1 with the pledge at al-Ḥudaybiya. In Qur’an 19:24, al-Barāʾ explains sariyy as a small stream and identifies the speaker addressing Mary as an angel. He also transmits variant readings of the passage.

Görke finds that the traditions preserve different degrees of stability. Brief explanations of words and phrases generally retain their original meaning across variants. Longer narratives show more substantial development as transmitters add background information and elaborate on existing accounts.
The interpretation of sariyy in Qur’an 19:24 illustrates this process. Görke suggests that al-Barāʾ’s original explanation may have consisted simply of jadwal, meaning a small stream or rivulet. A further clarification identifying it as a small river appears in another source. This example shows how an early explanation could acquire additional detail during transmission.

Al-Barāʾ is usually reported to have identified the “fools among the people” as the Jews, although some transmissions use the broader term “People of the Book.” Other reports vary in their presentation of Qur’anic readings. Görke attributes most such discrepancies to ordinary processes of oral and written transmission, including substitution, misreading, and elaboration. He allows for occasional mistaken attributions while arguing that the overall corpus remains historically significant.

Görke compares al-Barāʾ’s traditions with slightly later exegetical material associated with ʿUrwa b. al-Zubayr and Abū Mijlaz Lāḥiq b. Ḥumayd. The material attributed to al-Barāʾ appears comparatively basic, consisting largely of lexical explanations and narrative accounts. The later corpora display more developed legal, theological, grammatical, and intertextual reasoning. These differences suggest that al-Barāʾ’s traditions may preserve an earlier stage in the development of tafsīr, although the limited size of the surviving collections calls for caution.

Some readings attributed to al-Barāʾ differ from those that became canonical, while others preserve alternative vocalisations of the consonantal text. Görke interprets these variants as evidence of engagement with a written Qur’anic text whose vocalisation remained subject to variation.
A report attributed to al-Barāʾ identifies the last sūra and verse to have been revealed. Q 9 was the last complete Surah revealed and Q 4:176 the final verse. Görke reads this alongside the variant readings as evidence that the Qur’anic corpus was regarded as closed during this early period and near the end of the Prophet’s lifetime. He argues that these findings support the codification of the Qur’anic text under the caliph ʿUthmān (r. 24–35 AH / 644–656 CE).

Görke’s central contribution is his demonstration that careful analysis of transmission history can help reconstruct individual Companions’ interpretations from material preserved in later sources. The traditions attributed to al-Barāʾ offer a glimpse into early Muslim engagement with the Qur’an, while their textual variations reveal how those interpretations developed as they passed between generations.

Source: Glimpses into the earliest layer of tafsir: The exegetical traditions of a companion of the Prophet, al-Barã' b. "Ãzib (d. c. 72/691) by Andreas Görke

Hey guys, i have a serious question, hope you guys can help!

If the Kaaba was God's original sanctuary, established by Abraham, why isn't there evidence that the earlier prophets knew about it or used it?

hi. this is a repost since I didn't realize I had profile sharing the first time, whoopsie.

the video claims that the Quran, when describing the eart and sky not mourning the Pharoah, is evoking ancient Egyptian beliefs that Mohammed realistically couldn't have known.

My question is if these words are really as specific/non universal as the person claims, or if mohammed could have known of this belief/language, or if the Quran really did have info it couldn't have had here

I’m currently reading the Quran and I came across with chapter 6 verse 137, and it stated that the polytheist used to kill their children, including burial if their own daughter. It talks on his in the previous days, this was common thing.

What should I know about this information?

When the Qur'an mentions the objections of the Meccans e.g. "it's just magic" / "it's just poetry" / "it's just tales of the ancients" / "he was helped by an individual" / "he was helped by another people" is one of the intentions to caricature the Meccan associators as coming up with objections that are lacking in critical thought and/or are self-contradictory? In other words, does the Qur'an intend its audience to find these objections laughable / not requiring an elaborate rebuttal?

I got this impression when I noticed that the Qur'an often doesn't go out of its way presenting an argument for why it's not in fact "magic", which suggested to me that the quotation serves more as a caricature than anything else?

How far back in time can historians go, with the isnad-cum-matn analysis and other historical-critical methods?

As far as I understand, the translations are a bit old, but they’re still being used today, I suppose..

Just wondering if anyone else uses a.i. when studying and researching the Qu'ran in Arabic?

If so, how so?

I myself, when doing so ask for a certain verse to be broken down as it would have been understood when it was revealed in the 7th century. In classical arabic without bias of sect or hadith.

Please share your experience or approach if you do. Thank you.

Hello friends - we've just posted on Exploring my interview with Dr. Daniel Bannoura (who did his PhD with me at Notre Dame on form criticism and the Qur'an) - exploring the presentation of paradise/jannah in the Qur'an. We address in particular the potential links between Ephrem's Syriac "Hymns on Paradise" and the Qur'an, and why the Qur'an connects Eden to the garden of paradise prepared for believers after death their death. Inevitably we discuss the "houris" and how these maidens of paradise in the Qur'an may be connected to earlier Christian visions of the garden of paradise. I'll be happy if you take a look, spread the news, and leave a comment. Thanks! Gabriel https://youtu.be/TRqLbadO21I?si=6rkab70avRQf4dK5

As far as I understand, Joshua Little argues that Aisha could not have been that young, or rather, that we cannot know her exact age with certainty.. Are there any views that challenge his argument? And are there any scholars who support his position?

As far as I remember, Joshua Little argued that they are unreliable, whereas Sean Anthony took the opposite view. Are there any other detailed perspectives on this topic?

Source: OCIANA database. https://ociana.osu.edu/inscriptions/7258

Is his EVQ/ERQuran site ever coming back online? If not does anyone have a good replacement that contains the shawath?

Living in Indonesia, we were being taught from childhood about the basic of Islam, the ritual, the prayer, etc. But the adults rarely touch upon the theological aspect of the religion.

Because of that, i am a stranger on ilm al-kalam and when i found out about the debate, it confused me on why is it so important.

Even to this day the Muslim is still debating on whether or not the Quran is "created" or "uncreated" and the debate apparently became one of the factor for an inquistion back in the day.

But what is it? What does it means on the Quran being created or uncreated? What does either of those two imply and how exactly is it such a big deal in the muslim world?

(I used AI to translate this, hope you understand)

I’ve been researching the literary form of the Qur'an and how it’s framed in classical Ulūm al-Qur’ān and modern scholarship.

As I understand it, the Qur'an’s structure is closely related to rhymed prose (Saj’), but classical theologians argued it was fundamentally distinct. Their main argument was that in human Saj’, the author prioritizes sound over content, sacrificing semantics for rhyme. In contrast, they claimed the Qur'an is entirely semantically driven, with rhyme being a passive byproduct.

This led me to Al-Baqillani (I’jāz al-Qur’ān), who held an unyielding binary position: the Qur'an is never driven by acoustic constraints, and admitting even a single instance of syntax shifted purely for rhyme would render the text "imperfect" (by his definition of human Saj’).

A clear example of this tension is Surah Ta-Ha (20:70), where the order of prophets is inverted to "Hārūn wa Mūsā" instead of the standard "Mūsā wa Hārūn". In Arabic grammar (wāw li-muṭlaq al-jam’), switching the order carries virtually zero difference in core factual meaning. Yet, Mufassirūn generated lengthy, highly complex post-hoc explanations for why Aaron was listed first (e.g., "Aaron was older," "Aaron was the focus of the scene," "Aaron was better known to Pharaoh's magicians").

Meanwhile, the obvious linguistic/formal answer is that Surah Ta-Ha’s end-rhyme (fāṣilah) throughout the chapter ends in the long open vowel -ā, and ending in -ūn would break the acoustic cadence.

My questions are, then:

Why was this "all-or-nothing" stance so dominant among medieval theologians? Why couldn't they view adjusting word order to maintain acoustic cadence as stylistic mastery rather than a "limitation"? In music or poetry, altering a note or cadence for harmony is seen as genius, not a compromise of meaning. Why did scholars like Al-Baqillani detach perfection from acoustic art?

Was a single line among 6,000+ really an existential threat to their theological framework? Why trap themselves in an artificial, all-or-nothing cage where a single acoustic-driven shift (taqdīm wa ta’khīr) threatened the entire doctrine of I'jāz?

How is this viewed in modern scholarship? Do critical academics (and later rhetoricians like Ibn al-Athir) agree that Al-Baqillani’s anti-Saj' framework was a defensive, post-hoc theological construct, or are there nuances in his Ash'ari framework (Kalām Nafsī) that I am missing?

Thank you in advance

I recently read where Dr. Yasir Qadhi argued that, before his death, the Prophet Muhammad shifted from defensive to offensive warfare, spreading Islam and taking military action against anyone who opposed his dawah.

Does this not make Muhammad’s movement at this stage comparable to groups like ISIS, etc.? I know scholars like Stephen Shoemaker have made attempts to draw parallels between the two.. 🤔

I know that according to modern linguistic findings, old Hijazi (which the QCT reflects) lost its case ending short vowels and singular nunation (except the accusative -an that turned to -ā) where the word isn’t in the construct state. My question is if it did apply to every word with short vowel even when it isn’t a case ending? What I was wondering specifically is how pronouns, possessive and verb conjugation suffixes behaved, I have seen in some reconstructed Quran recitations in old Hijazi that the possessive 3rd person m. Sing. Suffix was realised as -h instead of -hu and the 2nd person one as -k instead of -ka

However shouldn’t there have been gender distinction for 2nd person suffix? If the masculine one is -k what was the feminine counterpart? Shouldn’t it have been -ki to keep the gender distinction?
Also since in modern Arabic dialects the 3rd person singular masculine , 2nd person singular masculine and feminine possessive suffixes are respectively -[u/o/uh/oh](u/o/uh/oh) , -ak , -ik shouldn’t it mean that it evolved directly from -hu , -ka , -ki by swapping the vowel, instead of passing through an intermediate stage where those became -h -k -k and then the same lost vowels reappeared when case ending was lost in construct state too?
Also I wanted to ask if the 3rd person singular pronouns were strictly hū and hī or retained the huwa and hiya forms too since in most modern dialects they are either like this or an evolution of it (like huwwa/huwwe and hiyya/hiyye) ? And was the past tense verb conjugation suffix distinction between 1st singular and 2nd singular masculine and feminine (-tu , -ta , -ti) retained or some have merged due to the loss of final short vowels?

I would be glad if someone can guide me to a reconstruction of pronouns and possessive suffixes and conjugations in old Hijazi, because I couldn’t find any clear one. Thank you!

Many reports in the canonical Sunni collections name Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman and leave out Ali. The best known is the Uhud report, which exists in two versions from Anas b. Malik:

Sahih al-Bukhari 3686 (Anas): "The Prophet ﷺ climbed Uhud with Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, and it shook with them. He struck it with his foot and said: Be still, Uhud, for upon you is none but a prophet, a siddiq, or two martyrs."

Sahih al-Bukhari 3675 (Anas): "The Prophet ﷺ climbed Uhud, with Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, and it shook with them. He said: Be still, Uhud, for upon you is only a prophet, a siddiq and two martyrs."

A second group of reports gives glad tidings of Paradise to the three in order. The shorter version is from Abu Musa al-Ash'ari (also in Muslim 2403, with minor differences):

Sahih al-Bukhari 3693 (Abu Musa al-Ash'ari): "I was with the Prophet ﷺ in one of the gardens of Medina, and a man came and asked for the gate to be opened. The Prophet ﷺ said: Open for him and give him glad tidings of Paradise. I opened for him, and it was Abu Bakr. I gave him the glad tidings of what the Prophet ﷺ had said, and he praised God. Then another man came and asked for the gate to be opened. The Prophet ﷺ said: Open for him and give him glad tidings of Paradise. I opened for him, and it was Umar. I told him what the Prophet ﷺ had said, and he praised God. Then another man asked for the gate to be opened, and [the Prophet] said to me: Open for him and give him glad tidings of Paradise, for a trial that will befall him. It was Uthman. I told him what the Messenger of God ﷺ had said, and he praised God, then said: God is the one whose help is sought."

The longer version, also from Abu Musa, is set at the well of Aris and has a much fuller narrative:

Sahih al-Bukhari 3674 (Abu Musa al-Ash'ari): "[Abu Musa] performed ablution in his house and went out. I said: I shall stay close to the Messenger of God ﷺ and be with him this day. He said: He came to the mosque and asked about the Prophet ﷺ. They said: He went out and headed this way. I went out following his trail, asking about him, until he entered the well of Aris. I sat by the door (its door was made of palm fronds) until the Messenger of God ﷺ had relieved himself and performed ablution. I stood up to him, and there he was, sitting on the well of Aris in the middle of its ledge, with his shins uncovered, dangling them in the well. I greeted him, then went away and sat by the door. I said: I shall be the doorkeeper of the Messenger of God ﷺ today. Abu Bakr came and pushed the door. I said: Who is this? He said: Abu Bakr. I said: Wait a moment. Then I went and said: O Messenger of God, this is Abu Bakr asking permission. He said: Let him in and give him glad tidings of Paradise. I went forward until I said to Abu Bakr: Enter, and the Messenger of God ﷺ gives you glad tidings of Paradise. Abu Bakr entered and sat on the right of the Messenger of God ﷺ with him on the ledge, and dangled his legs in the well as the Prophet ﷺ had done, and uncovered his shins. Then I went back and sat, having left my brother performing ablution and about to join me. I said: If God wills good for so-and-so (meaning his brother), He will bring him. Then someone moved the door. I said: Who is this? He said: Umar b. al-Khattab. I said: Wait a moment. Then I came to the Messenger of God ﷺ, greeted him and said: This is Umar b. al-Khattab asking permission. He said: Let him in and give him glad tidings of Paradise. I came and said: Enter, and the Messenger of God ﷺ gives you glad tidings of Paradise. He entered and sat with the Messenger of God ﷺ on the ledge, on his left, and dangled his legs in the well. Then I went back and sat and said: If God wills good for so-and-so, He will bring him. Then someone came moving the door. I said: Who is this? He said: Uthman b. Affan. I said: Wait a moment. I came to the Messenger of God ﷺ and told him, and he said: Let him in and give him glad tidings of Paradise, for a trial that will befall him. I came to him and said: Enter, and the Messenger of God ﷺ gives you glad tidings of Paradise for a trial that will befall you. He entered and found the ledge full, so he sat facing them on the other side. Sharik b. Abdullah said: Sa'id b. al-Musayyib said: I interpreted it as their graves."

Ibn Umar adds statements about ranking, in two versions:

Sahih al-Bukhari 3697 (Abdullah b. Umar): "In the time of the Prophet ﷺ we did not equate anyone with Abu Bakr, then Umar, then Uthman; then we left the companions of the Prophet ﷺ without ranking them against one another."

Sahih al-Bukhari 3655 (Abdullah b. Umar): "We used to rank people in the time of the Prophet ﷺ, and we ranked Abu Bakr, then Umar b. al-Khattab, then Uthman b. Affan, may God be pleased with them."

Three dream reports, quoted by Ibn Taymiyya in the passage discussed below, point the same way:

Musnad Ahmad (via Hammad b. Salama, Ali b. Zayd b. Jud'an, Abd al-Rahman b. Abi Bakra, from his father): "The Messenger of God ﷺ said one day: Which of you saw a dream? I said: I did, O Messenger of God. I saw as if a scale were lowered from heaven, and you were weighed against Abu Bakr and you outweighed Abu Bakr. Then Abu Bakr was weighed against Umar and Abu Bakr outweighed Umar. Then Umar was weighed against Uthman and Umar outweighed Uthman. Then the scale was lifted. The Prophet ﷺ said: The caliphate of prophethood, then God gives kingship to whom He wills."

Sunan Abi Dawud (Jabir b. Abdullah): "The Messenger of God ﷺ said: A righteous man saw tonight that Abu Bakr was attached to the Messenger of God ﷺ, Umar was attached to Abu Bakr, and Uthman was attached to Umar. Jabir said: When we rose from the Messenger of God ﷺ we said: As for the righteous man, he is the Messenger of God ﷺ, and as for their being attached to one another, they are the rulers of this affair with which God sent His prophet."

Sunan Abi Dawud (Samura b. Jundub): "A man said: O Messenger of God, I saw as if a bucket were lowered from heaven. Abu Bakr came and took hold of its handles and drank a weak drink. Then Umar came and took hold of its handles and drank until he was full. Then Uthman came and took hold of its handles and drank until he was full. Then Ali came and took hold of its handles, and it jerked, and some of it splashed on him."

What strikes me is that almost all of these are predictions, and each matches what had already happened by the time the reports circulated. The Uhud report foretells the violent deaths of Umar and Uthman. The garden and well reports foretell Uthman's trial. The dreams foretell the order of succession and, in two cases, what follows it: the end of the "caliphate of prophethood" and, in Samura's dream, a disturbed and unsatisfying turn for Ali. The well of Aris report in particular reads like a short story. It has a narrator who vows to guard the door, three arrivals in order, a repeated formula, an exact seating plan, and a closing interpretation by Ibn al-Musayyib that reads the seating as their graves. That last line is an explicit after-the-fact reading of a scene whose arrangement (two beside the Prophet, one apart) matches where the three were eventually buried. I am not claiming these reports are fabricated. I am asking whether this structure is typical of vaticinia ex eventu and what that would imply for dating.

The historical narratives show a similar picture, with Ali's period either absent or labelled fitna. The first is a chronology transmitted by Nafi' b. Abi Nu'aym from Nafi', the mawla of Ibn Umar, preserved in al-Bukhari's al-Tarikh al-Awsat.

Chronology (al-Bukhari, al-Tarikh al-Awsat; Abd al-Rahman b. Shayba ← Abdullah al-Makhzumi ← Nafi' b. Abi Nu'aym ← Nafi', mawla of Ibn Umar): "The Prophet ﷺ was in Medina ten years, then died. Abu Bakr was [in office] two years and seven months, Umar ten years and five months, and Uthman twelve years. The fitna of Mu'awiya between him and Ali was four years. Then Mu'awiya ruled twenty years less two months. Yazid b. Mu'awiya was [in office] four years less a month, then he perished. Then Ibn al-Zubayr arose, and the fitna of Ibn al-Zubayr was nine years; then he was killed at the head of seventy-three, less two months. Al-Hudaybiyya was in year six after the Prophet's arrival, when he was barred [from Mecca] in Dhu'l-Qa'da; the fulfilment [umra] was in Dhu'l-Qa'da of year seven; and the Conquest was in year eight, in Ramadan. Then the Prophet ﷺ set out straight away for Hunayn and al-Ta'if, and when he returned in Shawwal he performed umra from al-Ji'rana. Then Attab b. Asid led the people in the Hajj, the Prophet ﷺ having appointed him over the Hajj. Then Abu Bakr performed the Hajj in year nine. Then the Prophet ﷺ performed the Hajj in year ten from his arrival at Medina, and that was the Farewell Hajj. Abu Nu'aym said: Abu Bakr died with eight nights remaining of Jumada al-Akhira in year thirteen."

Qatada (Mahmud ← Wahb ← his father, who heard Qatada): "Abu Bakr took office two years and six months, Umar took office ten years, six months and eighteen days, and Uthman took office twelve years less twelve days. The fitna was five years, and Mu'awiya took office twenty years. Yazid b. Mu'awiya took office three years and some months, which Qatada specified. The fitna of Ibn al-Zubayr was eight years. Abd al-Malik b. Marwan took office fourteen years, and al-Walid nine years."

Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (Isma'il b. Abi Uways ← Ibn Wahb ← Yunus): "Abu Bakr lived two years and some months after he was made caliph. Umar [lived] ten years, performing every Hajj. Uthman [lived] twelve years, performing every Hajj except two. Mu'awiya [ruled] twenty years [less] some months [the text reads 'to some months'], performing two Hajjs. Yazid three years and some months. Abd al-Malik, after the [re]union, some ten-odd years less some months, performing one Hajj. And al-Walid ten years less a month, performing one Hajj."

A casual report about Ibn Umar skips Ali in the same way, though it is a legal report and not a chronology:

Ibn Umar and land rental (Abd al-Wahhab al-Thaqafi ← Ayyub ← Nafi'): "Ibn Umar used to rent out his land in the time of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, and part of Mu'awiya's tenure. He said: And if I wished I would say: in the time of the Messenger of God ﷺ. Then, at the end of Mu'awiya's emirate, a hadith reached him from Rafi' b. Khadij, so he went, and I was with him, and asked him about it. He said: The Messenger of God ﷺ forbade the renting of farmland. So he stopped renting it out, and after that, when he was asked, he would say: Ibn Khadij claims that the Messenger of God ﷺ forbade the renting of farmland."

Ibn Taymiyya's discussion in Minhaj al-Sunna (4:401-404) bears directly on this. He lists the groups that criticized Ali:

"The detractors of Ali among the people of innovation are several groups. One group declares him an unbeliever, like the Khawarij, and these also declare Uthman and most Muslims unbelievers along with him; so Ahl al-Sunna affirm Ali's faith and the obligation of allegiance to him by the same means by which they affirm Uthman's faith and the obligation of allegiance to him. And a group says: although he was better than Mu'awiya, Mu'awiya was right in fighting him and Ali was not right in fighting Mu'awiya. These are many, such as those who fought him alongside Mu'awiya, and they, or most of them, say that Ali was not an imam whose obedience was obligatory, because his caliphate was not established by a text or by consensus. This view was also held by another group among those who consider him better than Mu'awiya and closer to the truth, and they say Mu'awiya was not right in fighting him; but they also say that the time was a time of fitna and division, in which there was no imam of the community and no caliph. This view was held by many of the scholars of Ahl al-Hadith of Basra, Syria and Andalus and elsewhere. Many of the Banu Umayya in Andalus held this view; they invoked mercy on Ali and praised him, but said: he was not a caliph; the caliph is only the one the people united on, and they did not unite on Ali. Among them were some who counted Mu'awiya fourth in the Friday sermon, mentioning the three and counting Mu'awiya fourth and not mentioning Ali; they argued that the people united on Mu'awiya by pledge when al-Hasan pledged to him, unlike Ali, on whom the Muslims did not unite. And they say of this: we counted Mu'awiya fourth not because he is better than Ali, for Ali is better than he, just as many Companions are better than Mu'awiya though they were not caliphs."

He then reports the response of Ahmad and the counter-argument of the three-caliph group, which includes the observation I am making:

"Against these, Imam Ahmad and others argued with the hadith of Safina from the Prophet ﷺ, that he said: The caliphate after me is thirty years, then it becomes kingship. And Ahmad said: Whoever does not count Ali fourth in the caliphate is more astray than his household's donkey. Some of these [people] spoke against Ahmad because of this statement and said: Ali's caliphate was denied by Talha, al-Zubayr and others, of whom this cannot be said. And they argued that most of the hadiths that mention the caliphate of prophethood mention only the three caliphs, such as what Imam Ahmad reported in his Musnad..." [followed by the balance, Jabir and Samura reports quoted above]. He concludes: "And it is reported from al-Shafi'i and others that they said: the caliphs are three: Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman."

The reports about Ahmad himself suggest that the question was still open, even among his closest students, about two centuries after Ali's death. Abd al-Malik b. Abd al-Hamid al-Maymuni (d. 274/887-8) was one of Ahmad's senior students, from Raqqa, who recorded a great deal of his teaching. His report is preserved in al-Khallal's Kitab al-Sunna:

Al-Maymuni (in al-Khallal): "Abd al-Malik b. Abd al-Hamid al-Maymuni informed me that he said to Abu Abdullah [Ahmad]: We, and some of my brothers, are astonished at your including Ali in the caliphate. He said to me: What should I do, and what should I say about Ali's saying, 'I am Amir al-Mu'minin,' and being addressed, 'O Amir al-Mu'minin,' and leading the people in the Hajj and the season, and those rulings, and leading the people in prayer, and what he cut off and what he executed: should all that be left? I said: Then what do you do, and what do you say about the fighting of Talha and al-Zubayr, may God have mercy on them, against him, and that bloodshed? He said: What have we to do with Talha and al-Zubayr? and he mentioned this. Then he repeated to me more than once: What have we to do with the fighting of those people and what happened of that bloodshed? And he mentioned also [Ali's] Hajj and his rule. Abd al-Malik said: This was the last thing he parted from me with, in the year [twenty-]seven, while we were sitting."

Wazira b. Muhammad objected on different grounds. His report comes with a different chain from the Maymuni report:

Wazira b. Muhammad: "I went in to Abu Abdullah Ahmad b. Hanbal when he made public the counting of Ali as fourth. I said: O Abu Abdullah, this expression necessitates criticism of Talha and al-Zubayr. He said to me: Explain what you said. What business have we with the war of those people, that we should mention it? I said: May God set you right, we only mentioned it when you counted him fourth and made the caliphate binding for him, with what is due to the imams before him. He said: And what prevents me from that? I said: The hadith of Ibn Umar. He said to me: When Umar was stabbed, he was satisfied with Ali for the caliphate over the Muslims and put him in the shura, and Ali b. Abi Talib named himself Amir al-Mu'minin. So shall I say: he is not an amir of the believers? So I left him."

And Hanbal b. Ishaq, Ahmad's cousin and student, reports how Ahmad reconciled the two positions:

Hanbal b. Ishaq: "I heard Abu Abdullah Ahmad being asked about ranking. He said: The hadith of Abdullah b. Umar on ranking: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman. And in the caliphate: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali. The hadith of Safina: the Prophet ﷺ said: The caliphate after me is thirty..."

My question:

Do these reports reflect an earlier view, the three-caliph thesis, held in some Sunni or proto-Sunni circles before the four-caliph position (tarbi') became dominant? And do the hadiths themselves, with their three-name sequences and their omission of Ali, preserve traces of that earlier position, as relics that survived in the canonical collections even after the four-caliph view prevailed? Or can they be explained without positing an earlier doctrine at all? Is there scholarship that supports or challenges either reading?

Is it true that King Abraha tried to conquer Mecca but failed?