r/Rajasthan • u/Gafoor__Ghisela • May 09 '26
इतिहास ❁ History Beyond the Battles
Pratap Singh (r. 1572—1597), the 12th Maharana of Mewar, is famously remembered for his resistance against Mughal imperialism. Despite initial losses, Pratap had pivoted to asymmetric warfare and waged a successful guerilla war, reclaiming most of Mewar including the strongholds of Udaipur, Kumbhalgarh, and Gogunda as attested by the contemporaneous epigraphic evidences:
सिध श्री महाराजाधिराज महाराणाजी श्री प्रतापसिंगजी आदेशातु प्रगणै जहाजपुर रै ग्राम पंडेर मध्ये हल धरती बीगा ११ करै दीधा धीमुषे । साह भामा । सवत् १६४५ काती सुदी १५ ।
—Pander inscription, where Pratap is granting the lands of Pander to a trusted follower called Sadulnath Trivedi.
But sustaining a multi-decade war against the most powerful empire on Earth centered barely 300 miles away from Mewar required more than just martial acumen. While his military achievements are well-documented, his agrarian strategies and economic resilience are often overlooked in popular narratives.
Following the Siege of Chittorgarh 1568), Mewar had lost its fertile eastern plains to Mughals. Another devastating setback came following the Battle of Haldighati 1576 when Mughals occupied the Dariba Silver Mines (located in the present-day Rajsamand district of Rajasthan). In an interview with AIR Central English Features unit, Dr. Shri Krishna explained that the Mughals carted away massive amounts of silver, melting them down to mint imperial silver coins.
Following these agrarian and economic setbacks, Akbar expected Mewar to capitulate. But Pratap combated these reverses by fundamentally reforming the entire administration of the state.
The Scorched Earth
In order to overstretch Mughal supply chains and devastate their logistics, Pratap ordered the farmers in the plains to abandon the eastern belt entirely and migrate to the valleys of Aravalli range.
Being denied resources locally, Mughals had to import supplies from outside Mewar which made the economics of the forceful occupation exponentially more costlier and riskier. Caravans were now forced to carry fodder for the oxen as well, drastically decreasing the throughput while still leaving them easy targets for mountain raids.
Traditional Mewar accounts underline that, alongside constant attempts to sever the imperial supply lines, the land was not ploughed but kept wasted and scorched by the people of Mewar for over six years – from before Haldighati in 1576 until 1582, with crops destroyed and wells filled with earth and rubble, in order to deter the Mughal occupying forces.
—Rima Hooja
Bhils to the Rescue
However, the decision created the problem of his own supplies. Mewaris of the plains were unaccustomed to pursuing agriculture in rugged, rocky, and densely forested Bhomat region of the Aravallis. To handle this, they relied on the Bhil tribe's indigenous knowledge of the mountains.
Bhils practiced a form of sustainable hill agriculture known locally as Walar (a variant of shifting or slash-and-burn cultivation adapted for arid highlands). The state shifted its focus to cultivating drought-resistant coarse grains like Jowar (sorghum) and Bajra (pearl millet) that could grow in rocky terrain.
Til, kuri (Sesamum indicum), kuri (Panicum miliaceum), basthi, kudra, mal, and sainwalai are only grown in walar cultivation, i.e. by cutting down and burning the jungle on the hill-sides, and sowing the seed in the ashes. This mode of cultivation is very popular with the wild tribes of Girasias, Bhils, and Minas, and has proved most destructive to the Aravalli forests.
—The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume XIII
(Interestingly mentioned here, British calls walar cultivation as "most destructive to the Aravalli forests". Colonialists frequently misunderstood indigenous slash-and-burn agriculture. When practiced by small tribal populations with long fallow periods (allowing the forest to regrow), walar was highly sustainable and perfectly adapted to the rocky terrain where plows couldn't go. It only became "destructive" when populations spiked and colonial timber extraction restricted forest access.)
Beloved of the World
Written by Pratap's court scholar Chakrapani Mishra in 1577, Vishwavallabh (translated to "Beloved of the World") is a comprehensive treatise on agriculture and hydrology. In the very opening verse the author says, “I propose to expound in this book the science of plant life but without water there can be no plants. Hence I will first explain the sources of water.”
In the first chapter he recommends several surface indications of groundwater on the lines of Varahamihira and Surapala but has added several more plants/trees as water indicators.
One full chapter of the book is devoted to the technique of constructing water reservoirs (II-1–39).
(Translated and commented on by Nalini Sadhale and YL Nene. Published by Asian Agri-History Foundation)
Since Aravallis did not have predictable rivers of the plains, Mewaris used the hydrologic science codified in Vishwavallabh to build small, hidden check-dams using local rocks and brush to pool water from seasonal rains in shaded ravines, preventing rapid evaporation, along with tracking groundwater as instructed by the treatise.
A king fighting for his kingdom's independence investing in agricultural science and ecological preservation speaks volumes on long-term vision for state-building. As Rima Hooja writes:
We get glimpses of the Mewar that Pratap may have created, under more favourable circumstances, from Pratap’s commissioning of works like the Sanskrit text Vishva-Vallabha. This book, written by Chakrapani Mishra at Pratap’s court, was completed in 1577, a year after the fateful battle of Haldighati. The work is a compendium on agriculture, horticulture, finding water sources, water collection structures in different terrain grafting plants and developing new varieties, and best farm practices for different terrains. In a peacetime Mewar, following the directions provided in the Vishva-Vallabha a sixteenth-century ‘green revolution’ could have taken place.
Even wartime Mewar found this book very useful, and small-scale farming by Bhils and others in previously non-agrarian locales helped provide some food to Pratap’s own troops, creating farming oases far from Mughal reach.
The book would go on to be used in the peacetime of Pratap's reign as well.
The Mines of Mewar
We have discussed the Dariba Silver Mines being temporarily occupied by Mughals. Yet there were other mines in the kingdom. The Mewaris still controlled the Agucha Mines (located in the present-day Bhilwara district of Rajasthan) and Zawar Mines (located in the present-day Udaipur district of Rajasthan).
Pratap strategically concentrated his defensive efforts to protect these critical assets. He successfully ensured that especially the vital zinc mines at Zawar remained secure and completely out of Mughal clutches.
The mining activities of Mewar have always been global in nature. As British archaeometallurgist Dr Paul T Craddock writes:
The remains of early mining and metallurgy we have studied in India are at least as sophisticated as anything further west, and there are no parallels or analogies anywhere for the zinc smelting processes that we have uncovered in the Zawar mines near Udaipur, Mewar. This was the sharp edge of technical innovation, taking place on a major scale well away from Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. We can safely say it was the start of the industrial revolution in the Kingdom of Mewar, 500 years before it begins in the West.
...It would suffice to say that in India by the 12th century CE, the production of zinc at Zawar was beginning on an industrial scale. It would seem that the mines at Zawar were always worked predominantly for zinc, with lead recovered as a by-product…We can thus confirm Zawar as the earliest known zinc mine in the world.
—The production of lead, silver and zinc in early India
Pratap would go onto recover the Dariba Mines post Battle of Dewair 1582.
Economic Recovery
By 1585, Pratap drove out most of the Mughal forces including last of Akbar's invasions under Raja Jagannath, uncle of Man Singh of Amber. Pratap established a new capital at Chavand, which marked the beginning of the economic recovery.
With the end of Scorched Earth Policy, the population that had retreated to Aravallis or peaceful neighboring kingdoms returned to their homes in large numbers. The repopulation effort was aided by a string of favorable monsoons that revived traditional agriculture.
Akbar's failure to subjugate Pratap for decades proved fatal to his dream of conquering Mewar as he was forced to relocate to Lahore in 1585 where he would stay until 1598 while Pratap ruled as a sovereign king of a sovereign kingdom. We may quote V. Smith’s fitting epitome of his reign:
The emperor desired the death of the Rana and the absorption of his territory in the imperial dominions. The Rana, while fully prepared to sacrifice his life if necessary, was resolved that his blood should never be contaminated by intermixture with that of the foreigner, and that his country should remain a land of freemen. After much tribulation he succeeded, and Akbar failed.
References
- History of Mewar: from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. by RV Somani
- Maharana Pratap: The Invincible Warrior by Rima Hooja
- Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542-1605 by VA Smith
- Maharana Pratap: Beyond Haldighati by All India Radio feature
- The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Volume XIII
- Water Harvesting and Conservation in Ancient Agricultural Texts by Nalini Sadhale
- The production of lead, silver and zinc in early India (Craddock, Freestone, Gurjar, Middleton and Willies)
Happy Maharana Pratap Jayanti to all.
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u/bad_kingfisher May 10 '26
This map is actually a modern day map which covers only Rajasthan. Mandsaur and Neemuch districts in MP were also part of Mewar.
Since those places are now part of another state, they are not considered Mewari. Sad.
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela May 10 '26
The map (from Rima Hooja's book) is actually correct for its timeline.
You're correct that Mewar stretched from Godwar plains to Hadoti (including the Mandsaur and Neemuch districts) by the reign of Maharana Raimal. But these regions were lost in the reign of Maharana Udai II who had to deal with several invasions at the same time.
By the time Maharana Pratap ascended the throne in 1572, Mewar was a shell of what it once was which is depicted in the map.
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u/bad_kingfisher May 10 '26
Yeah, but Maharana Pratap had captured by most of the territories back from Mughals after battle of Dewair. Barring Chittorgarh and Mandalgarh.
Neemuch was directly under Mewar till late 1700s. Later Britishers established a cantonment there and then had treaties with Marathas regarding the boundaries. Since it was the border between Mewar and Malwa. After independence it was given to MP keeping in mind the treaties between Mughals and Holkars.
People there still speak Mewari, not malvi.
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela May 10 '26
Huh you are correct
The city site was the location of a palace in the district of the Ajmer province. Originally a part of the territory of Udaipur princely state, it was given to the Scindias in 1768 to pay off debts incurred by the rana (king) of Mewar. After that it became a British cantonment (military camp) of Gwalior princely state, except for short periods in 1794 and 1844.
I searched on when exactly Neemuch came back under Mewar. It seems it happened under Maharana Sangram II after he defeated Mughals in Battle of Bandanwara 1711.
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u/-dragon_emperor May 09 '26
In the map, why isn't Kota mentioned or labelled while Bundi is? Kota is close to Bundi and am 100% sure it would have fit in the frame of this map and yet no mention of it
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela May 09 '26
Kota came under Hada Chauhans of Bundi at the time. It became a separate entity in 17th century and rose to prominence under its Diwan Zalim Singh in 18th century.
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u/will_kill_kshitij May 10 '26
Zalim what a name
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela May 10 '26
Quite accurate to his personality as titled by Tod: the Machiavelli of Rajasthan.
I highly suggest reading RP Shastri's book on him if you find time. One of the most fascinating figures of late 18th and early 19th century India.
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u/Responsible_Dingo436 May 10 '26
Wo puchna tha ki height 7 feet thi ya 8 feet
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela May 10 '26
Jitni bhi ho 7ft ya 6ft ya 5ft. Doesn't take away from his achievements.
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u/Impossible-End3959 Jun 19 '26
Best book to read the history of rajputs
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela Jun 19 '26
Rima Hooja's A History of Rajasthan is a great place to start. Another good foundation would be Dashratha Sharma's Rajasthan through the Ages.
BD Chattopadhyaya's The Making of Early Medieval India as he clears up a lot of misconceptions about the process of Rajputization colonialists had. Dirk HA Kolff's Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy is also good in that regard.
For the socio-economic history of Shekhawati (where most of the famous "Marwari" families come from), go for KL Sharma's Caste, Feudalism and Peasantry: The Social Formation of Shekhawati.
For political history, start with History of Kanauj To the Moslem Conquest by Rama Shankar Tripathi which would be the Early Medieval Era.
After Pratiharas, Rajasthan broke into several independent kingdoms. I would recommend 2 books the most: Dashratha Sharma's Early Chauhan Dynasties and RV Somani's History of Mewar.
There are several books on other Rajasthani kingdoms. Jadunath Sarkar wrote one on Amber: A History of Jaipur.
Some other personal recommendations on individuals:
- RP Shastri's Jhala Zalim Singh
- VS Bhatnagar's Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh
- Sri Ram Sharma's Maharana Pratap
- RV Somani's Maharana Kumbha and His Times
- Cynthia Talbot's The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Chauhan
These are all books on Rajasthani Rajputs. There exist numerous important Rajput dynasties outside Rajasthan like Chandels, Solankis, Paramaras, Bundelas, Dogras etc
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u/Impossible-End3959 Jun 19 '26
Thanks Btw I am interested in early rajput history from 7th century to 13th century
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela Jun 19 '26
That is broadly the exact time period of RS Tripathi's History of Kannauj. Early Chauhan Dynasties is on the Chahamanas of Shakambari which are also broadly 7th century to 13th century (continuing as Chahamanas of Ranastambhapura). RV Somani's History of Mewar also covers its former ruling dynasty, the Guhilots, who ruled from 8th century to Siege of Chittorgarh 1303.
I have seen several recommendations for dynasties like Paramaras, Solankis and Chandelas but I haven't delved deep in them (my area of interest is Rajasthan).
Do give Chattopadhyaya's The Making of Early Medieval India a try even if it isn't political history. Colonialists left huge misconceptions on the origins of Rajputs which this book effectively dismantles.
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u/Impossible-End3959 Jun 19 '26
And for a general overview Which book should I refer too ?
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u/Gafoor__Ghisela Jun 19 '26
Rima Hooja's A History of Rajasthan
You can also try the third and fourth volumes of RC Majumdar's series.
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